Electro-chemistry

Lattice enthalpies cannot be determined directly but an application of Hess’s law to the formation of an ionic crystal called the ‘Born-Haber cycle’ can be…

The strength of the covalent bonds can be measured by the bond enthalpy. In ionic compounds the comparable enthalpy value which relates to the strength…

The simplest way to apply Hess’s Law is to remember that the enthalpy change of any reaction is equal to the total formation energy of…

How can the enthalpy ΔH be discovered if the enthalpy changes for reactions are too difficult or impossible to determine experimentally? If for example, the…

A thermo-chemical equation is a chemical equation for a reaction in which the enthalpy of reaction for the molar amounts stated is written directly after…

The pH of a solution can accurately be measured using a pH meter. Although less precise, acid-base indicators are often used to measure pH because…

A measurement of the hydroxide ion concentration, similar to pH, is called pOH. The pOH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm of…

Although one can quantitatively describe the acidity of a solution by its concentration [H+], it is more convenient to determine the acidity in terms of…

In an acidic solution, the concentration of H+ (aq) is greater than that of OH+ (aq). After dissolving substances in water, one can alter the concentrations…

We know that in a solution of a strong acid one can normally ignore the self-ionisation of water as a source of a few extra…